Microbes and Diseases: The Hidden World Within Us Microorganisms, commonly known as microbes, are living beings so tiny that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. They require a microscope for observation. These minute organisms are everywhere — in the air we breathe, the water we drink, the soil beneath our feet, and even inside our bodies. Microbes are considered the oldest forms of life on Earth and play an essential role in maintaining ecological balance. Although people often associate microbes with diseases, the truth is that without them, life on Earth would not be possible. Microbes help in vital processes such as the recycling of nutrients, decomposition, food production, and even the development of life-saving medicines. However, some microbes can also cause infections and spread harmful diseases. This dual nature makes microbes both beneficial and harmful to living organisms. In this blog, we will explore the different types of microbes, the diseases they cause, how thes...
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Research Methodology Questions for Ph. D. Entrance Exams Practice Set Part A: Basics of Research Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of research? A) Systematic process B) Objective approach C) Subjective interpretation D) Logical analysis Answer: C The primary aim of research is: A) Financial gain B) Knowledge creation C) Political influence D) Entertainment Answer: B In research, facts and figures collected are called: A) Theory B) Data C) Hypothesis D) Sampling Answer: B Which type of research aims to solve practical problems? A) Basic research B) Applied research C) Historical research D) Fundamental research Answer: B In research terminology, the universe or total group of interest is called: A) Population B) Sample C) Parameter D) Statistic Answer: A The first step in research is: A) Data collection B) Formulating a research problem C) Report writing D) Hypothesis testing Answer: B Which research uses numerical d...
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Chromatography and Its Types Chromatography is a widely used analytical and preparative technique for separating, identifying, and purifying components of a mixture based on their differential distribution between two phases—a stationary phase and a mobile phase. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, while the mobile phase may be a liquid or a gas. As the mobile phase moves through or over the stationary phase, the different components of the mixture interact differently with the stationary phase, leading to their separation. The principle underlying chromatography is the difference in the partition coefficient or adsorption affinity of the components toward the two phases. The technique is indispensable in chemistry, biochemistry, environmental sciences, pharmaceuticals, and many industrial applications due to its high resolution, versatility, and reproducibility. The origins of chromatography date back to the early 20th century, whe...
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Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)– Principle and Applications in Detail I. Introduction to SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that uses a focused beam of high-energy electrons to generate a variety of signals at the surface of solid specimens. These signals are used to obtain information about the sample’s surface topography, composition, and other properties such as electrical conductivity. Unlike light microscopes that use visible light, SEM uses electrons , which have a much shorter wavelength, allowing higher magnification and greater resolution . II. Principle of SEM 1. Electron Beam Generation At the heart of SEM is an electron gun , which emits a beam of electrons. This is typically: A thermionic gun (e.g., tungsten filament or LaB₆ crystal). Or a field emission gun (FEG), which provides a narrower, more coherent beam. Electrons are accelerated by a high voltage (typically 1–30 kV) and directed down th...
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Plant Hormones (Phytohormones) Plant hormones are small, organic molecules produced in low concentrations that regulate plant growth, development, and responses to stimuli. They act at sites often distant from their synthesis and coordinate processes like cell division, elongation, senescence, and tropic responses. Classification of Plant Hormones Plant hormones are classified into five major classical groups , along with some newly discovered growth regulators : 1. Auxins 2. Gibberellins (GAs) 3. Cytokinins 4. Abscisic Acid (ABA) 5. Ethylene New/Other growth regulators: Brassinosteroids Jasmonates (JAs) Salicylic acid (SA) Strigolactones Polyamines Nitric oxide (NO) 1. Auxins Structure and Natural Forms: Most common natural auxin: Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) Synthesized mainly in shoot apices , young leaves , and developing seeds Biosynthesis: Derived from Tryptophan Main pathways: Indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPA) and Tryptamine pathway Tr...
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The C₃ Cycle (Calvin Cycle): Mechanism, Regulation, and Importance Photosynthesis is the fundamental biological process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy. This process not only sustains plant life but also supports life on Earth by producing oxygen and food. One of the central components of photosynthesis is the C₃ cycle , also known as the Calvin Cycle , which is responsible for fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) into organic molecules. The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin , Andrew Benson , and James Bassham in the 1950s using radioactive carbon (¹⁴C) tracing, for which Melvin Calvin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1961 . The C₃ cycle is the most common carbon fixation pathway in plants and is called "C₃" because the first stable compound formed is a three-carbon molecule , 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA) . This cycle occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts and is light-independent , although it relies...
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Glycolysis: A Detailed Exploration of Steps, Enzymes, and Inhibitors Glycolysis is one of the central metabolic pathways in living organisms. It plays a crucial role in energy production and serves as a precursor to several biosynthetic pathways. It is a ten-step enzymatic process that occurs in the cytoplasm of all living cells. The pathway involves the breakdown of one glucose molecule (6-carbon compound) into two molecules of pyruvate (3-carbon compound) , yielding energy in the form of ATP and reducing equivalents in the form of NADH . The name "glycolysis" derives from Greek: glyco (sugar) and lysis (splitting). The pathway is anaerobic , meaning it does not require oxygen, and it is fundamental for cells that rely solely on glycolysis for ATP production, such as red blood cells . Phases of Glycolysis Glycolysis can be divided into two major phases : Preparatory Phase (Energy Investment Phase): Steps 1–5 Utilizes 2 ATP molecules. Converts glucose into...